EDu111 LECTURE NOTE
(HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA)
CONCEPT AND RATIONALE OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Introduction
Most of human history lies in pre-history, the period before the use of writing, and before written history. In pre-literate societies, education was achieved through demonstration and copying as the young learned from their elders. Rural communities had few resources to expand on education, and there was a lack of commercially available products for schools. At later stages they received instruction of a more structured and formal nature, imparted by people not necessarily related, in the context of initiation, religion or ritual. Some forms of traditional knowledge were expressed through stories, legends, folklore, rituals and songs, without the need for a writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhymes and alliteration.
Africans have passed through three different educational phases; these are the period of traditional education phase, the colonial education phase and the post-colonial phase. Each of these phases produced different principles of education.
Concept of History
History is derived from the Greek word historia, meaning “inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation”. It is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organization and presentation of information about these events. Historians try to find out what took place in the past through available sources visible or invisible. With available evidence a historian reconstructs events and happenings which throw more light on what took place in the past in order to redirect the present and even prepare for the future.
MEANING OF EDUCATION
Concept of Education
The word ‘Education’ was derived from the Latin word ‘educare’ meaning to bring up, to lead out, to rise up, and to educate. Education therefore would mean acting in order to develop fully all the potentialities of an individual. Development in this case does not mean physical development that we can always see, but it also includes intellectual and emotional development that only manifest themselves in the behaviour and mental activities of the individual; Jekanyinka (2003). Education therefore is used as an instrument for all round development of the individual and the society in which he lives. From the view of sociologists of education, education should not be restricted to the transmission of cultural ides, knowledge or skills, but that of influencing the individual positively so that he can become useful to himself and the society in which he lives.
In essence, education therefore entails training and acquisition of special skills, knowledge, attitudes and values for all-round development of an individual i.e. physically, morally, socially and intellectually needed by an individual to be responsible and which would enable him/her contribute his/her own quota to the growth of the society of which he/she is a member.
i) E.B. Castle (2008), Education is what happens to us from the day we are born to the day we die. It is a preparation for life.
ii) Education is a preparation for happy and useful living.
iii) J.S. Farrant (2003), Education is the process of learning to live as a useful and acceptable member of the community to which one belongs.
Purpose of Education
Fafunwa (1974) stated that the end objectives of education are to produce an individual who is honest, respectful, skilled, co-operative and who would conform to the social order.
The main purpose of education therefore is to develop the individual so that he can be useful to himself, his family and the society in general. Thus, the purpose of education whether traditional or modern is to produce a useful citizen. If the purpose of education is to become useful in the community into which a person is born. In ancient Greece emphasis was placed on physical and intellectual development, in Rome it was on social development all these were geared towards producing a useful citizen.
TYPES OF EDUCATION
There are broadly, three types of education and they are
i) Informal Education (Traditional Education)
ii) Non-formal Education
iii) Formal Education.
i) TRADITIONAL EDUCATION:- Is the type of education that is received at home from parents, relatives, friends, age mates, playmates etc. e.g. traditional or indigenous system of education, it is called informal education because it is not planned or deliberately organized, it takes place everywhere.
ii) NON-FORMAL EDUCATION:- Is acquired outside the frame work of the formal education system. It involves a variety of programmes such as correspondence courses, adult-literacy programmes, apprenticeship, skill acquisition programmes, extra moral lesson, co-operative education and recreational education.
iii) FORMAL EDUCATION:- Is the most popular of the three types of education. It refers to school-based education. It comprises of all educational experiences which are provided by professional teachers and specialists within specialized setting called the school. It is provided based on an organized curriculum. It is the teaching and learning which individuals intentionally undertake in a school setting.
History of Education
According to Okonkwo (1986: 20-21) History of Education is the story of the evolution and development of various educational institutions and organizations in different societies from the beginning of civilization to the present. It is also a narration of educational philosophies, aims, contents and purposes, curricula, public attitude and support, the teaching/learning process and methods applied, the preparation of professional personnel-teachers, administrators’ specialists in various fields and a full description of changes in educational organization and structure through time. Also Jefanyinfa and Kolawole defined History of Education as the account, record or stories of all educational activities in the past, across the ages, and changes or development that have occurred in the process of educating to bringing up children both in formal institutions of learning and otherwise all over the world.
Rational for the Study of History of Education
History of education is a foundation course that is required by teachers in training to go through. This is because of the numerous benefits that the knowledge acquired from there accrues to the teacher as a classroom manager or as a school manager. Its benefits can be seen in the following:
The study of history of education help teachers in training to have a background knowledge of their past educational process which can help to effectively understand the present and make better plans for future.
It enables teachers in training to know what type of education we had and the purpose it served in the past.
It gives teachers in training the opportunity of knowing our past mistakes in our education with the view to making necessary amendments. In particular it exposes the colonial and post-colonial independent African education for its hollowness and poorly articulated programmes which have failed to respond to the need of contemporary African.
History of education guide teachers in training to proffer some positive solution to our present day educational problems.
It helps teachers in training to formulate and implement better philosophies of education.
It widens the scope and knowledge of the teacher and makes him more comfortable and competent in his class.
Knowledge of History of Education can help teachers in training to be competent in handling any political appointment on education, nationally or internationally.
History of Education help the student teacher to understand how past events shaped the present education systems, theories and related phenomenon in the area of teacher education in particular and education in general.
It will enable the student-teacher to appreciate the importance of education to mankind since time immemorial across generations. By so doing students will be able to critically examine the fundamental part which education plays in the transformation of society.
The teaching and learning of History of Education is therefore justified for many reasons, some of these include the fact that it would enable teachers in training to have adequate knowledge of what our education policies are and what they are not; the philosophical ideas guiding the Nigeria education; the contributions of ancient nations and scholars to the development of the country’s education and the major trends in the development of our education in Nigeria which may encourage them to be willing to contribute their own quota to the development of education in the country whether or not they are in the position to do so (Jefanyinfa and Kolawole, 2008).
GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION
Brief History Of Ancient Greek And Roman Education
With the scribal culture (scribal culture, refers to the habit of committing information into writing or the popularization of the art of writing) as a legacy from the ancient civilization the Greeks were able to develop their own educational system. The old Greece comprised 48 small autonomous city-states with Sparta and Athens been the most prominent ones, during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. The Greeks were constantly at war with each other. This meant that the citizens had to be loyal and physically fit to be able to fiercely defend their states. thus these city-states had or developed systems of education that enabled their citizens to be politically conscious and active. Good (1960) averred that the purpose of education in both Sparta and Athens was directed at training and education of strong and courageous soldiers and loyal citizens.
Spartian Education
In Sparta all states machinery was geared towards maintaining the military might of the state for two reasons. The first reason was that Sparta became the capital of Laconia when the Spartans conquered it and reduced the helots’ the original population living there –to serfs. This culminated in the Spartans owing all the land and were by law and custom not allow to cultivate it, partly because such labour was regarded degrading to them and partly in order to allow them devote themselves completely to military service. The helots cultivated the land which was divided into lots, one or more for each adult male Spartan. The Spartan landlord received from the helot a substantial portion of the grain and fruit produced annually and left the rest to the helot. Naturally the helots, who themselves were Greeks like the Spartans, bitterly disliked their second-class position and so often revolted against Spartans.
The second reason was that Spartan was surrounded by mostly energy state. Military reading was very essential to counter the threats of the helots and to defend the Spartan stake from external enemies. War therefore became the main business of the Spartan citizens, which in turn make military training top priority of Sparta.
Thus the goal of education in Sparta was to inculcate the warrior culture into the citizens, that is to produce patriotic, obedient and military efficient citizens who were completely willing to defend the existing order of the state. Hence the curriculum emphasized military training. Intellectual and artistic studies were totally relegated to the background and were given only to the extent to which they aided military training. Both boys and girls were not taught how to read and write but learnt morality and politics by memorizing the laws of Lycurgus and the poetry of Homer.
To achieve the states (Greek) objective of maintaining a ferocious military human machine, the physically week or handicapped children were disposed of while the healthy and strong children both boys and girls were made to go through different stages of physical and military training from the age of seven to the age of twenty in military barracks. The Spartan state controlled the education of the citizens.
Athenian Education
Athens was a democratic city-state where everybody could vote and be voted for elective offices. The educational system sought to train the citizen both for war and for peace. It aimed at producing free polished, opened-minded and blanced citizens of high intellectual attainment and sound physical disposition. But the state left the education of the children in the hands of anybody interested in setting up a school and there was no state control of the curriculum. Girls were not given the same type of education as the boys. In the city-state of Athens, physical education, reading, writing, literature, arithmetic, art and music were taught to boys from the age of seven by teachers. But while the education of boys from poor homes terminated at the age of sixteen, the sons of wealthier citizens proceeded in their education in one of the two state gymnasia called the Academy and Cynosarges. Here they underwent two years of more advanced course that prepared them for public service later in life.
Athenian education produced some of the best know philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and Socrates. These philosophers believed that education should aim at preparing the child for a future profession and help him realize his full potential. The child should be educated to have balance in his physical and cognitive development as the ultimate is to produce an individual with brilliance and strength.
Contributions Of Greek Education To Modern Education
The most important city states in Greece were Athens and Sparta. However Greece was made up to 48 city states each of which was autonomous. That is to say that they were independent from one another. Most of our examples are drawn from Athens and Sparta. Greek contribution to education went as follows:-
1. Education for Relevance:- Sparta was a warrior city state, its aim of education was for militarism. Athens had a different aim of education. It was for the all development of the individual but the emphasis was on intellectualism. In Nigeria, attempts are being made to use education for the solution of relevant problems. E.g. the introduction of the 6-3-3-4 education system.
2. State Control Education:- In Greece both Sparta and Athens had all public systems of education. Plato insisted that national objectives can only be achieved through a state-controlled education system. In Nigeria some state government such as Imo and Anambra states promulgated public education edicts which enable state governments to take over all primary and post primary institutions in their respective states.
3. Educational Theory and Philosophy:- The Greece through the philosophers were among the earliest people to develop a systematic and comprehensive philosophy of education. In Sparta, the aim of education as to produce warrior citizens for the defence of the city state. In Athens education aimed at producing the philosopher–kings who would govern an ideal state with justice as its supreme goal. In recent times, efforts are being made in Nigeria to formulate a philosophy of education. The 1969 curriculum conference and the 1977 and later 1981 national policy on education are cases in point.
4. National Service:- In Sparta, Athens and in fact all the Greek city states, young men at 18 took the Ephebic oath which was an oath of the allegiance to the state. After taking the Ephebic oath the young men went on National service for two years. Perhaps, in Nigeria the idea of the National youth service corps may have been a legacy from Greek education. People who complete their education in institutions of higher learning and are under 30 years of age undertake a one-year national service called National Youth Service Corps (NYSC).
5. Meritocracy:- Plato’s system of education was based on meritocracy. In Greek, higher education where Dialectics or philosophy was studied, was structured in such a way that only those who were capable of benefiting from it were admitted. These were the philosopher-kings who passed rigorous examinations during the previous forty years. Although, Nigeria has a system of examination, based on merit, yet one is not sure of the validity of these examinations (cases of cheating and impersonations during examinations weakens the Nigerian system).
6. Equal Educational Opportunity for Both Sexes:- Sparta and all other Greek city states laid emphasis on women education. This, by implication, meant that equal educational opportunity was provided for both sexes. In Nigeria, western-type education was initially the prerogative of males. But since 1960 more emphasis has been placed on women education. Many women organization have come to champion women education E.g. Women- in Education group. Remarkable progress has been made in the southern parts of the country, but, in the northern parts the practice of early marriage constitutes a problem. Girls who would have furthered their education are given to marriage at the tender age.
7. Olympic Games:- The ancient Greeks started the Olympic games. These have continued to be held one every four years. During this period, there was a National truce and all quarrels and fighting among the city states ceased. It served as a bond of unity. Athletic competitions such as races, throwing the javelin and discuss were competed for at mount Olympiad by all the city states. Soon other countries of the world joined. So has Nigeria, although, there are no National Olympic Games. Nigeria participates in the international Olympic Games. More importantly, many sport festivals in all aspects of sports are organized for all the states of the federation. During these competitions, National honours are vied for. These competitions among the states are expected to serve as a bond of unity binding all Nigerians together.
Contribution Of Roman Education To Modern Education
Just as the Greeks, the Romans contributed much to the development of modern educational thought in Nigeria.
1. Development of an Educational System:- The Romans as good administrators developed a standardized system of education. This system had three stages.
i) The elementary schools stage which lasts for five years. They taught writing and arithmetic.
ii) The Grammar school stage, which lasts for two years, they taught language and literature.
iii) The school of Rhetorics. This taught Rhetorics and represented the higher institutions.
This system of education influenced the British system from which Nigeria derived its early pattern of education. Until recently, Nigeria had a similar system with Elementary schools for six years, secondary Grammar school which lasted for five years and the university with diverse number of years depending on specializations.
2. The Education for the Orator:- Oratory was a major contribution of Roman education to modern educational thought. Quintilian was the greatest of the Roman orators. For Quintilian the orator was likened to the Greek philosopher-king. He was expected to be a great thinker and speaker of the best languages. Quintilian’s orator was also expected to be encyclopedist. Nigeria, like the Romans attaches a great importance to effective communication in her education. There is a course mounted in all higher institutions in Nigeria known as Effective for Communication. Some institutions tag their own “The use of English for Communication” it is important to observe that every student offers this course irrespective of his area of specialization. Perhaps, like the Romans, Nigeria may ask what is education other than the ability to communicate intelligently?
3. Educational Psychology:- Roman education highlighted the importance of some psychological principles which we adopt in our present education.
i) Take the concept of individual differences, for example. Roman education recognize this and insisted that a teacher ought to know his pupils very well. This knowledge would enable him to deal with his pupils individually.
ii) Noter pertains to overcrowding of knowledge. It was Quintilian who asked granting hat all things should be learnt, can they all be taught and learnt at the same time? The Romans therefore called for a variety of interconnected subjects that were well spaced.
iii) The Romans contributed a lots as regards discipline. The teacher should make his presence felt through self-control. But, when necessary, he should use corporal punishment judiciously. Later, Roman educators began to condemn the use of corporal punishment. Today, Nigeria schools are often engage in debate whether or not to use corporal punishment as a means of instilling discipline.
4. State Control of Education:- Just as the Greeks, the Romans believed in the state control of education. The Romans saw the school as a miniature society and the pupil has the opportunity of becoming a member of this society. Here he learns his roles to the society. He is exposed to healthy competitions. Roman Emperors like Caeser and Augustus felt that such an institution should not be under private control. They voted money from the public treasury to run the educational institutions thereby making it state controlled. In Nigeria many state governments such as Imo, Anambra, Cross River, and Edo to mention but a few, have all promulgated relevant public education edicts. These edicts enable the state governments to take over the control of primary and post-primary institutions in the state.
5. The spread of Christianity:- A strong opposition came from Pegan worshippers when Christian religion was introduced in Rome. But later Christianity came to terms with Pegans and agreed to modify some of its tenets believed by the Pegans to be too stiff. With this done the Pegans embraced the “new Christianity” Christianity spread and introduced new elements that helped western education to survive even during the Barbarian invasion of the Roman Empire. In Nigeria, it was the activities of the Christian missionaries that led to the introduction and spread of western education in southern Nigeria.
6. The Roman Law:- As early as the 5th century the Romans had codified their laws. This became the law of the 12 tables. The Romans from then believed in the rule of law. They insisted that every body should know the customs and laws of his land. Nigeria believes in the concept of the rule of law even during military administrations. Perhaps this concept was one of the legacies from Roman Education to Nigeria education.
7. The Encyclopedia:- The Roman system of education believed that an educated man should be an encyclopedia (a possessor of all knowledge). The Romans were also the first people to embark on the compilation of an ENCYCLOPEDIA. This is a book containing information on every branch of knowledge known to man. Modern encyclopedia must have taken root from the Roman model. Some of them include American Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Britannica for Britain, Nigeria uses these encyclopedia. But more significant to Nigeria education is the present move towards integrated social studies. This and integrated science are both gaining ground in the Nigerian educational system. Thus, like his Roman counterpart, the Nigerian educated man is becoming an Encyclopedia.
The African Traditional Education (ATE)
Traditional education also known as the African indigenous system of education is the type of education which is indigenous. It teaches people how to live as members of their society. It is the oldest system of education that has been transmitted from generation to generation. Traditional education in Nigeria is the type of education that has basis in Nigeria before our contact with any system of education either Islamic education, Christianity missionary or western types of education.
Fafunwa (1995), aptly defined traditional (i.e. indigenous) education as the aggregate of all the processes by which a child develops his abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he lives. Indigenous education exists today side by side with western-type education. It does not posses the art of writing. It is a process which enables every society to teach her younger generations the life patterns of their society. The boys for example accompany their father to the farm, hunting expeditions’, mending the family house, etc.
Objectives Of Traditional Education
The objective of the tradition of any society is to produce people who are skillful, respectable, honest, intelligent, dedicated, cooperative and conforms to the social needs of the given society. The cardinal objectives of traditional education are as follows:-
1. Development of the child’s physical skills:- As children move about in their environment, some jump, others jump over the fences, others run about, climb up trees while some attempt to walk or even run on top of fenced wells with both hands stretched as balancing games. In the night, both young and old come out to the moon-light either to dance to the tune of local musician or to play some hide and seek games. As these activities go on the children are developing their physical skills. This perhaps is what western education calls physical education.
2. Character and moral training:- Character and moral training constitute the corner stone of indigenous education. Children at taught from the early stage of their life to respect, and greet their elders. This is a law that must be rigorously obeyed. For example a Yoruba girl must kneel down for a male or female elder, while a boy must bow or prostrate. The Ibo boy must stand up to greet an elder and must do so with the appropriate prefix to the elder’s status. Character and moral training in traditional society is the responsibility of every adult over every child. The child’s behaviour are watched and moral lapses are punished. Severe punishments such as age grade beating which accompany offences like theft, adultery and fornication remind the child that he better behaves at any point in time.
3. Development of Intellectual and Social Skills:- Perhaps it might be interesting to see that indigenous education teachers most of the intellectual stuffs western education claims to teach. The child’s intellectual skills develop informally in an indigenous setting in the following ways.
i) During story sessions, he is told the stories connected with the exploits of their heroes during inter tribal wars. This may also be told by village chronicler (History).
ii) They learn the names of important rivers, villages, hills or mountains (Geography).
iii) They learn names of certain herbs with medicinal powers (Medicine).
iv) They are engaged in counting or dividing the seed-yams for the various farm land (Mathematics).
v) They help in tilling the soil and planting the seed yams or cassava cutting (Agriculture).
vi) They take part in sweeping the compounds, market squares and sources of water supply (Health Education or the so-called Environmental Sanitation).
vii) The young help in building new houses and mending or redesigning old one (architecture and building technology).
viii) They are involved in organizing and presenting local songs and dances (Drama and Music).
ix) Particularly girls learn to cook different dishes (Home Economic). Through these means indigenous society assured the child’s intellectual and social development.
4. Vocational training:- It is vocation oriented. As stated earlier, children take to the occupations of their parents such as farming, hunting, carving, weaving etc. In some specialized vocation this is done through the apprenticeship system. A child may be sent to a renowned seer to understudy him and learn the art of divination from the expert. Taken fees are charged which would represent modern tuition fees. Sometimes such specialized vocations become hereditary in a family. One or all the members of the family may possess the art of curing a particular disease which are usually passed on to their children’s children.
5. Development of Sense of Belonging and Cultural Heritage:- The child is taught from the beginning the homogenous nature of the community. He is told that everyone is his brother’s keeper. All the important cultural heritage is taught to the child. He participates actively on every community projects such as clearing the village square. He watches the naming ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, coronation ceremonies and picks the appropriate roles expected of him. Conformity to the cultural norms of the society certifies a child as well educated.
6. To develop social integration.
7. To acquire specific occupation for economic self reliance.
Characteristics Of Traditional Education
Traditional education has the following features
i) No planned curriculum:- Traditional education is the type of education that was and is transmitted from generation to generation and that has no documented planned strategies, in terms of selecting what to be taught or learned. It is only based on the day to day interaction and between individuals through learning which takes place, there is no arrangement as to the beginning and the end. It is the type of education that the learner can learn without specific procedure or documented materials.
ii) Traditional education has no age limit:- It is the type of education for all groups of people from birth to death, no specific time of starting nor time for graduation. It’s for young and the elderly people. There is no specific age of enrolment or specific age of graduation all members of the society learn from the environment at all ages. It is a continual process from birth to death.
iii) Learning through trial and error:- Trial and error means making an attempt to do something if one fails then he/she re-do it again and again until he/she succeed. It is a process of doing things without a clear or single acceptable way of doing it. It is unscientific there is no standard way of evaluation.
iv) There is flexibility in traditional education:- By this it means it is not static but a dynamic processes, one can learn anything at a time, there is no limit for professionalism, one can be in any profession at a time e.g. one who is learning building can go for metal work (blacksmith) can go for farming etc.
v) Traditional education is all in all:- All in all means it is the type of education that deals with all aspect of life, no aspect of life that is left untouched. An individual learns both social, political, economical, vocational, spiritual, physical, cultural way of life at the same time.
The Teachers Of Traditional Education In Nigeria
The teachers of traditional education in Nigeria consist every adult of the society who can teach children or adults good behaviour, culture and way of living of the society. They include the following:-
The family members/siblings e.g. father, mother, sister, brother, grand fathers/mothers etc.
Community leaders.
The peer group which include friends and play groups.
The professionals or master’s of some trade/craft.
The priest and traditional religious leaders. The teaching (traditional education) takes place in the farms, during moon light play, during hunting expeditions, market squares, sources or water supply, etc.
Curriculum Of Traditional Education
The curriculum of this type of education may not be easy to identify in the conventional way. The curriculum may be seen as all that is available to an individual in any social setting which offers such individual an opportunity to know more about himself. The curriculum would consists of all that the community is prepared to pass on to its younger generation. The following can be identified as the curriculum for traditional education.
i) Moral and Character Curriculum:- All taboos of the community, greetings, titles attached to elders of different status are experiences the child is expose to behaviours which attract moral lapses and deviations from the norm are highlighted in time to the child. Such behaviours as insurbordination, fornication, adultery, theft, poisoning, have different special punishments. These are taught to the child and constitute the moral and character curriculum.
ii) Social Curriculum:- The social curriculum would include all relevant information about the child’s community. Some of them are tradition of origin of the community, the village chroniclers, the exploits of the community heroes rivers and mountains the village gods, mirage customs, coronation ceremonies, initiation ceremonies and sacrifices of all kinds. The roles expected of the child in each ceremony are made known to the child. In some cases the child need not be seen.
iii) Vocational Curriculum:- Agriculture is basic in traditional education and every child is expected to learn how to farm before branding of to other specialization. If a boy decides not be a fulltime farmer, he could then branch off to craft such as blacksmithing, carving, leather works or even hunting and fishing. Girls learn how to cook, weed the farm, plant the cocoyam etc. They learn the art of buying and selling from their mothers. At adolescent age they are taught the special roles of house wife. Indigenous education has no record of unemployment except for the very lazy ones.
iv) Physical and Health Education:- People in traditional societies catered for their health. They believed in preventive medicine. Herbs and tree barks which when taken periodically prevented such sickness like malaria were shown to every child. This did not qualify him as a herbalist. Things used in keeping witchcraft off the compound or antidotes for poison were generally known by the average traditional child. A normal child was forced to join his kith and kin in learning the age grade dances, wrestling and shooting expeditions. These activities, perhaps not realized by the society, were infact part of the courses in health education.
Methodology
The methods of teaching in Traditional African Education are mainly two
i) The informal approach
ii) The Apprenticeship system or the formal approach.
i) The Informal Approach:- Generally indigenous education went on in an informal way. Many a time teachers passively aware that they were teaching. The children learnt merely through observation and imitation. Most of the time the teaching-learning activity was a passively unconscious affair e.g. story telling, imitation, observation, group work etc. Generally the essentials of indigenous education were caught and not taught.
ii) The Apprenticeship system or the Formal Approach:- In some circumstances, a conscious effort was made to pass on certain skills or trade to a young child. A good example is a profession. Different societies have varying methods of apprentices under special arrangements depending on the occupation to be learnt. The secrets of the art and their incatation which must accompany them must be taught and learnt very carefully. Another example is the initiation ceremonies. Males adolescents and their female counterparts are brought to the forest and camped separately. Experienced older men and women stay-with their respective group’s and teach them some of the adult roles they were soon going to play..
The teachers of traditional education include:
The family
Peer group
Elders, and
Master of some craft and trade.
Merit
I is relevant to the people’s needs,
It is functional i.e. anything taught is being put into practice right way.
It is affordable in terms of cost.
It is integrative i.e. it prepares the individual to fit into society
Conducive to the leaner who were mainly taught by close persons.
Demerit
It is so local i.e. could not be applied outside a given community
It is conservative or rigid and consequently resistance to change.
It has element of gender bias.
No planned curriculum.
Not documented.
No certificates to be given to learners.
Challenges Facing Traditional Education In Modern Societies
African Traditional education has some challenges facing it in the modern society and some of them are:-
i) Conservative in nature:- The African traditional education did not train the child on how to challenge his environment. In fact the education teaches the child how to conform and insisted that he conforms with the maintenance of the status quo society became static.
ii) Lack of documentation:- The African traditional education had no generally known system of writing, so, many of its valuable information, particularly in the areas of medicine and history died with the experts, there was neither continuity nor the possibility of research. Without research there will be no improvement or development, hence the white man called it primitive education.
iii) Unlimited in Scope:- Traditional education was very wide in scope, all its energies were directed to meeting the immediate basic needs of the individual within his given community as well as the society’s eternal demands it begins from cradle to grare.
Islamic Education In Nigeria
Islam began in the first half of the 7th century A.D. Later in the century, the Arabs conquered North Africa. Fafunwa (1995). This facilitated trade relations as well as the spread of Islam. No wonder then that Islam came to west Africa through traders. The traders made it possible for the religion to spread along trade routes to Kanem-Borno, Hausa land and the Central Sudan.
By the 11th century, Islam had penetrated the Kingdom of Kanem-Borno (a section of which comprised present-day Borno State of Nigeria). Islam began to penetrate Hausaland on a large scale in the 15th century and was spreading southward by the end of the 16th century. Throughout the central Sudan (Present Northern Nigeria) during the 16th century there was a considerable expansion both in the number of people who were converted to Islam and in the number of people who could read and write in Arabic. Ozigi (1981). The religion became so influential that most of these ancient states were ruled by muslims by 1800. It is to their credit that the muslims brought with them the first written language known in west African and all the benefits of Arab culture.
In fifteenth century Almaghili went to Katsina and many other scholars from Timbuktu continue to circulate in the northern region and the system continued until the coming of the British to Nigeria. The history of Islamic education in Nigeria is connected with the history of teaching Arabic throughout the Islamic world. This is one of the reason why the elementary Arabic schools in Nigeria were called Qur’anic school and both Arabic and Islam were taught simultaneously. Islam also spread to the southern region Yoruba land in seventeenth century. Samuel Johnson in his history of the Yoruba suggested that Islam came to Yoruba land towards the close of the eighteenth century that is to say Islam has certainly reach southern Nigeria long before the jihad of Uthman Danfodio in 1804.
Factors That Lead To The Rapid Growth Of Islamic Education In Northern Nigeria
Islamic education spread in the northern Nigeria due to the following factors Fafunwa (1995)
- Religious factors
- Cultural factors
- Political factors
- Economic factors
- Language factors
- Geographical location of the area.
- Influence of Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio Jihad of 1804.
- Early contact with Arabs.
Forms Of Islamic Education
Islamic education in Nigeria is organized into three forms namely:
i) Qur’anic education
ii) Hadith - Prophets sayings and deeds
iii) Sirah - History of Islam
iv) Fiqh - Jurisprudence
1. Qur’anic School
This is the first and basic for all type of Islamic education. The glorious Qur’an is the root of all forms of knowledge. In this type of school students are taught the holy Qur’an in Arabic by memorization in Islam reading and learning of the Qur’an is regarded as mandatory because it is with these type of knowledge that muslims pray all the times end it is the major source of the Islamic law.
One of the Islamic traditions state that “the best man among you is one who learns the Qur’an and then care to teach it. Islam began on this prophetic advice.
A Qur’anic school is usually found in or outside the mosque and even some special placement for that purposes. In a typical Qur’anic school the teacher (Malam) sits under a tree, his parlour, veranda, with his students of about ten to forty squatting in a semi circle with them each a wooden slates holding it and reciting the verses of the Qur’an based on ones ability. The teachers is assisted by one of the pupils who is considered the brightest or the oldest or both.
Qur’anic schools has the basic objective of teaching muslims how to read and write glorious Qur’an also to facilitate it memorization for the purpose of (salat) prayer and subsequently it memorization as a form of Ibadat.
2. The Ilimi School
This is the higher stage of Qur’an school and the second stage of Islamic education. In this level the graduate of Qur’anic school are exposed to many advance studies. This type of school take place at a place called (Zaure) or even in the mosque where the students have learn Islamic science like Islamic jurisprudence Arabic language. Linguistic logic mathematics astronomy, history (sirah) of Prophet Mohammed (SAW).
The Madarasah School
This is a new modern islamiyya schools which combine both the Islamic education and western type (Boko). The islamiyya school has the features of modern system of education with classroom set up in this type of school student learn and write glorious Qur’an at the sometime learn the western traditional way of learning. It combines the east and the west learning different subject with contemporary method and traditions. The madarasa school (Islamiyya school) are regarded as the islamization of knowledge programme.
Aims And Objectives Of Islamic Education
For every education given it has aims and objectives, some of the aims and objectives of the Islamic system of education Martha etal (2008), include:-
i) To make man realize his relationship with Allah, his creator, Lord sustainer and also to understand his existing relationship between him and other creatures through sharia.
ii) To help man to understand the sole purpose of his life in this word to enable him to develop a sound faith and establish corresponding good deed such that will make his life successful both in this world and the hereafter.
iii) To help man understand that the fundamental purpose of human life on earth is to worship Allah alone.
iv) To lay the foundation for building a strong committed and wholesome muslim personality, knowledge which will benefit him both in this world and the hereafter.
v) To dedicate the entire life of oneself to struggles, endeavours, and committed worship of Allah (SWT). This was indicated in the Qur’an as follows:-
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vi) To create in every muslim, a true sense of his worth self, and to help him correctly understand his rights and responsibility as an important member of the Ummah (society).
Philosophy Of Islamic Education
The philosophy of Islamic education is centred on enabling individuals who acquire it to become the kind of people an Islamic society conceives. Fafunwa, (1995) Islam as a religion upholds that man is born into the world in a state of innocence like his own parents. If during his existence on earth he yields to temptation, that becomes entirely his responsibility to God. This therefore creates a need for contact between man and his creator. To maintain this link with God man has to maintain his natural goodness. Education in the Islamic sense is intended to build and develop this goodness that every individual has at birth so that man can hope to remain a worthy servant of Allah.
This philosophy of Islamic education generates five major aims of education Fafunwa, (1995)
i) Continuity of Man’s Essential Goodness:- The Islamic man never loses sight of his relationship with his maker. Education, for him is an unfolding of these strengths and sensibilities which draw him nearer to God. It inspires in him a consciousness of his obligations as the servant of God. It also teaches him to treat the world as a trust which must not be abused.
ii) The Development of Piety:- Islamic education aims at developing individuals who not only worship Allah but also lead a life that is in accordance with His ways.
iii) Service to Allah and Man:- Education in the Islamic sense is not merely the stocking of knowledge. It is the way one’s sections are affected by the knowledge one has acquired.
iv) Intellectual Development:- Most of the subjects offered in Islamic schools demand a high degree of intellectualism; they are philosophy, psychology, jurisprudence and literature. Thus a man does not only need to be pious or have faith in God, he has to have a well-developed intellect.
v) Individual Adjustment:- Islam appreciates the high degree of change that characteristics any given society. Therefore, it strives to teach its members the tools with which they can equip themselves to cope with the ever changing society. All learning must be put into practice otherwise the individual in question is not learned.
Challenges Facing Islamic Education In Modern Nigeria
According to Janguza (2015), some of the challenges facing Islamic education in modern Nigeria are:-
i) Teacher’s qualification:- The qualification of Qur’anic school teachers differ from person to person and place to place, sometimes the teachers are highly learned “Ulama” well versed in Islamic studies and there are those whose only qualification is that they can recite Qur’an and write Arabic characters.
ii) No uniform curriculum:- Most of the Qur’anic schools are run according to the discretion of their individual proprietors, as a result instruction differs from school to school.
iii) The ministry of education has no control over these schools and as a result such schools are not supervised by experts in this field.
iv) Extreme Discipline:- Learning is always in fear as the only method of maintaining discipline is by the use of a cane. This is natural since the number of pupils in a particular school is usually more than a single individual can adequately control. This explains why mallams (teachers) in Islamic schools spend most of their time with whips in an effort to maintain discipline.
v) Narrow Curriculum:- The curriculum of Islamic education is narrow especially at the Qur’anic education level. Little is taught in history, geography the pure sciences and even in social sciences. This handicaps graduates of Islamic education when they compete with their counterparts in the western type system.
Advantages Of Islamic Education
The following are advantages of Islamic education. Zainab (2008)
i) Cheap Education:- The cost of Islamic education is very cheap. There are no large buildings and the services of paid teachers are not needed. Most teachers in this system teach without salaries.
ii) Learning at Individual Rate:- Pupils do not learn under the fear of an impending examination. This motivates pupils and they try to understand what they are learning.
iii) Moral Education:- Individual pupils are well versed in morality because all their teachings are base on the practice of the holy Qur’an.
iv) Preparation for Life:- Islamic education prepares children for difficulties they are likely to face in later life as they stay in the mallams house to render essential services and also go out to seek for alms.
v) Vocational Opportunities:- After going through this kind of education an individual graduates to become a mallam there are no cases of unemployment among graduates of Islamic education.
Some Challenges Facing Islamic Education
The following are disadvantages of Islamic education Zainab (2008)
i) Very Limited Organization:- There is limited organization at the primary school level of Islamic education. It has the limitation of making the whole teaching lack seriousness. The fact that a single teacher manages an entire school introduces problems of controlling the pupils during lessons. Most pupils spend their time play as the teacher tries to organize a different section of the school.
ii) Extreme discipline
iii) Narrow curriculum
iv) Poor teaching method.
Contributions Of Muslims Scholars To Humanity
Many great thinkers and researchers emerge in the Muslim world since the advent of prophetic mission to mankind. Muslim scholars researched and produced literature on subject like Mathematics, Physics, Natural sciences, Chemistry, Medicine, Philosophy, Political science, Geography, Sociology, History, Arabic, Architecture, Literature, Music and Arts. During the period of Islamic advancement in human civilization Europe was known to be in “The Dark Ages” (period of barbarism or uncivilized period (Canham and Ozigi, 1979) in R.B. Bello (2003).
Some of the muslims scholars contribution according to R. B. Bello (2003) were in:-
1. Geography and History:
The passion for travel of the Muslims Arabs is one of the most striking traits of their character and those which helped them to make their deepest mark on the history of civilization. The names of Ibin Haykal Al Biruni, Idrissi and Ibn Batuta are fresh in memory as travelers, scholars and authors of many books on History. In fact, West African history owes a lot to the efforts of such Muslim scholars.
2. Literature:
The Muslim Arabs were great poets. They brought the Art of poetry to a perfection seldom equaled and never surpassed anywhere in the world. One would recall vividly those works of poetry like Arabian Nights.
Abu Ali Naari was a blind poet whose poetry was incomparable splendor that embodied a philosophy which was profoundly pessimistic and skeptical.
3. Chemistry:
The Muslim Arabs discovered susbstances such as alcohol, sulphuri aid, acgua regia, (hydrochloric acid), nitric acid, potassium, sala-mmoniac (ammonium sulphate) silver, nitrate, corrosive, sublimate, and the preparation of mercury.
The renowned Muslim chemists include Abu Musa Djafar Al Kufi who lived in the second half of the 8th century. His works for a virtual scientific encyclopedia and provided a summary of contemporary chemists’ works.
4. Natural Sciences:
The Muslim Arabs made commentaries on Greek authors and devoted themselves to the study of nature itself, making their own useful contributions. These Muslims had developed Agriculture to very high standard and also had a strong interest in Geology.
5. Astronomy:
The first of the sciences to attract the enthusiasm (curiosity) of Muslim Scholars was Astronomy. Several Khalifs and Sultans (Muslim Rulers) devoted their lives to its study.
6. Political Science and Sociology:
The works dedicated to political philosophy and sociology form one of the real jewels of Muslim literature. Al-Farabi, the greatest Muslim Philosopher before Ibn Rushd (Avicenna) wrote a thesis of high spiritually and most noble sentiment entitled “The Modern City”. R. B. Bello (2003)
Al-Farabi arrived at the conclusion that “The perfectly organized state ought to cover all the inhabited world and comprise the whole of humanity”. Al-Mawerdi (972-1058) a renowned lawyer wrote “The book of the roles of Power”. This great work was translated into many languages like French. R. B. Bello (2003)
7. Philosophy:
Philosophical speculation began early in the world of Islam with the dissemination and assimilation of the world of Antiquity. Muslim thoughts became more subtle.
Among the great philosophers are Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd (adulteratedly called Avicenn and Averoes respectively by the Europeans) who developed the teaching of Aristotle.
These people made a sharp distinction between religious truth and Scientific Truth. Fafunwa (1974) made it known that “Ibn Rushd paved the way for the literation of scientific research from the theological dogmatism that was prevalent in the existing religion then”.
8. Government and Administration in Pre-Islamic Arabia, there was no systematized form of government. This was initiated by the central to enforce law and order in the society.
Islamic institution as drawn from the Quran to abolished all tribal distinctions and established a commonwealth or Republic encompassing all warring tribes with himself as the head of state.
Duties with authority were delegated to caliphs (lieutenants or companions). These were caliphs Abubakar, Umar, Uthman and Ali. He bound together all communities by one rope using the Quran as the guiding constitution.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION
Introduction
Christian missionary education started from the southern parts of Nigeria. Its spread moved into the hinterland and gradually northwards. However, of all agents of imperialism, it was the Christian missionary who made the most revolutionary demands of Nigerians. The missionary did not want the wealth from the Nigerian soil, nor the fruits of her forests, nor even any portion of her soil. His desire was the conquest of the Nigerian soul for Christ (as Christian). Our focus will be the coming of the Christian missionary education to Nigeria, history, philosophy, curriculum of Christian education and government intervention/partnership with missionary/western education in Nigeria.
The First Missionary Endeavour
Various schools (Ejiogu, 1988; Fafunwa, 1974; Taiwo 1980) have written extensively about the genesis of Christian/Western education in Nigeria. Their writing indicate that the first Europeans that entered into what is now part of Nigeria were the Portuguese. They arrived the gulf of Guinea in the late part of the 15th century. Although the Portuguese were mainly interested in commerce, they nevertheless realized that if they were to succeed in it, the Africans whom they are trading with must have some rudiments of education and accept Christianity, the two civiling agencies considered most important by European merchants, civil authorities and missionaries at the time. As early as 1472 Portuguese merchants landed in Lagos in Benin and in 1485 a Portuguese trader had some trade dealings in pepper with the Binis. As a result, a Binis citizen was sent as an emissary by the Oba of Benin to the Portuguese court.
The Catholics, through the influence of the Portuguese merchants were the first missionaries to set foot on Nigeria soil. As early as 1513, intermittent missionary activities had started in Benin when some Catholic missionaries established a school in the Oba’s palace. This school was meant to serve the Oba’s children and the sons of his chiefs who were converted to Christianity. By 1571, the catholic missionaries also established a seminary on the island of Sao Tome off the west coast of southern Nigeria to train Africans for church work as priests and teachers. From Sao Tome, they proceeded to Warri where they established schools and also preached the gospel. But the catholic influence was almost wiped out by the slave trade which ravaged west Africa for nearly there hundred years.
The Second Missionary Endeavour
Despite failure of the first missionary experiment, the second missionary wave in the 1800s yielded better results. The second wave coincided with that period in history in which attempts were being made to abolish slave trade. Consequently, liberated slaves who were resettled in Freetown, Sierra-Leone in certain cases made attempts to trace their birth place as they traveled from Sierra-Leone to Lagos and Badagry on trade expedition. To such free slaves, particularly those of Yoruba origin, who had themselves been exposed to the doctrines of the Christian missions in Sierra-Leone could now read and write once back, told their kiths and kin baffling stories about their experience as slaves, their miraculous liberation and the white man’s ways of lie. After hearing these moving stories, their kiths and kin became eager to also experience some of the white man’s culture. On their own part, the freed slaves even sent frantic appeals to various Christian missions to sent missionaries to come to their place to preach the doctrine of Christianity to their people.
The various Christian missions did not arrive in Nigeria at the same time. As noted by Fafunwa (1974) and Ejiogu (1988), the Wesleyan Methodists mission made the first appearance when it sent Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman – a descendant of a Negro slave accompanied by Mr. and Mrs. William de Graft, Badagry in September, 1942 with the help of the local people they established christen mission stations. It should be noted that as early as this time the missionaries had realized that they would not success in their work of Christian evangelism without linking it to western-type of education. Hence, the establishment of the first known school named “Nursery of the Infant Chruch” by Mr. and Mrs. De Graft in Badagry during this period marked the actual beginning of formal education the western European model in Nigeria.
In January 1845 a formidable team of evangelists and their spouses from the church missionary society (CMS) arrived Nigerian soil. These were Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther and Egba ex-slave who later who later became the first Nigerian Bishop), Rev. Henry Townsend and Rev. G.A Collmen. They first landed in Badagry and later proceeded to Abeokuta. In each of these places, the missionaries established churches as well as schools. At Abeokuta for example, Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther and his wife built two schools, one for boys and another for hirls. And that perhaps was the beginning of having separate schools for boys and girls in Nigeria. While the Methodist and the CMS evangelists were consolidating their missionary activities in and around Badagry and Abeokuta, under the leadership of Rev. Hope Masterton Waddel, the united Presbyterian. Church in Scotland arrived Calabar in 1816. One of the most outstanding achievements was the established in 1895 of Hope Waddel Training Institute. The objectives of this institute were to provide basic pre-vocational courses for boys and to train primary school teachers and evangelism to assist the mission in its task of evangelism.
In 1858, the Southern Baptist convention (of the United States of America) led by Rev. Thomas J. Bowen arrived Nigeria, and established the Baptist Academy for boys in Lagos and numerous other schools and college at Abeokuta and Ogbomosho.
The Roman Catholic Mission, popularly known as RCM, were not left out in the spiritual scramble for Nigeria, as they arrived in Lagos in 1868. From Lagos the missions activities spread east of the Niger to Onitsha in 1885. One of RCM earliest achievements was the establishment of St. Gregory’s College in Lagos in 1876. Although the RCM entered the Nigerian scene at a later stage, but as observed by Ejiogu (1988), the mission especially under the leadership of Bishop Joseph Shanahan outpaced the other missions who had arrived much earlier in the establishment of schools and colleges. This happened because whereas the RCM adopted a policy of conversion through education, the other missions (the protestant missions) believed in education through evangelizing. The result was that by 1952 the RCM had more schools than any other single mission in the country.
The First Five Christian Missionary Bodies
There were five CMS that began Christina evangelism in Nigeria. They are as follows with the years of their activities:-
1515 The Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission.
1842 The Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman of the Methodist Mission.
1842 The Rev. Henry Townsend of the Church Missionary Society.
1845 The Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther of the C.M.S.
1846 Hope M. Waddell of the Church of Scotland Mission.
1850 Thomas Bowen of the Baptist Mission.
In response to the calls from Egbaland, a Mehodist missionary Rev. Thomas Freeman was sent to Badagry in 1842. By September 1842 Freeman had built a mission house and started prayer meetings on Sundays. He also visited Abeokuta and opened a mission for the emigrants there.
Rev. Henry Townsend, a lay minister of the Church missionary education was to convert the Nigerian soul to Christianity and to civilize him. But to be able to communicate with the missionary, the converts were compelled to learn to read and write. Thus Christianity encouraged an individual to be capable to reading the Bible for the understanding of the word of God. The reading of the Bible assured the convert of eternal salvation which remained the dominant philosophy of the missionary education.
The Christian religion was referred to as the religion of the book because the converts were to learn how to read and write in order to communicate with missionaries. The converts were to read the bible which contained the tenets of eternal salvation.
Curriculum Of The Christian Missionary Education
Although the various missionary bodies differed to some extent in their educational policies and objectives the content of their educational offering was identical. Undoubtedly, the various Christian missions established schools in the country with the sole aim of training literate Nigerians who were meant to be able to read and interpret the Bible. This was in line with their desire of converting the local people into Christianity.
Thus in most of the schools the basic curriculum consisted principally the teaching and learning of reading, writing, arithmetic and religion (4RS) “Vernacular”, storytelling, singing, nature study, agric and basic handicraft. Moral instruction was also strongly taught in an attempt to make the pupils exemplary lives as outlined in the Bible. In many cases the Bible and Hymn were the primary texts used in moral instruction. Recitation and role memorization were the commonest methods of learning in the early schools. These methods were emphasized because to the missionaries, the mind of the African was vacuous, sorts must be written: an empty tank which must be filled with European values, modes of the thought and behaviour. They believed that they have manifest destiny to lead the primitive African to light.
Factors That Favoured The Spread Of Christian Education In Nigeria
The following are factors that help the Christian missionaries greatly in the establishment of western-type education in Nigeria
1) The freed slaves needed no other impetus than their experiences as slaves and their unbelievable rescue to abandon their old beliefs in which they were brought up. They therefore embraced the religion of their mentors, their culture and education.
2) By the beginning of the twentieth century, many parts of southern Nigeria had become interested in having missionary schools. This was because of their desire to acquire the source of the white man’s greatness western-type education.
3) Commercial activities on palm oil going on along the cost of southern Nigeria needed a knowledge of English language. This the missionary schools provided.
4) The Christian missionaries had uninterrupted activity and protection throughout southern Nigeria. This provided them the opportunity to establish and run their schools.
5) Government interest and partnership:- Prior to 1925 the British government had no clearly defined policy on education in its African colonies, it was in 1882 that the government issued what appears as its first statement on this subject. The colonial governments initial lack of interest made the Christian missions to have an initial monopoly in the educational activities going on in the country for a considerable length of time.
Reasons Why The Colonial Government Was Reluctant To Get Involved In The Educational Matters Of The Colony
According to Ejiogu (1988) in W. Ekuafeh etal (2015) the colonial government was cautiously reluctant to get involved in the educational matters of the colony for the following reasons:-
i. Unlike their French and German counterparts the British colonial master as not interested in assimilating the “natives” into a British culture. Their major focus in the country was to acquire the much needed raw materials for their industries.
ii. The various religious groups operating in the country were mostly British. Kiths and kins of the colonial government officials they all shared the same geo-political, social and economic backgrounds. Thus the colonial administrators did not fear any threat to their policies from the missionaries.
iii. The missionaries were apparently faring well with the natives. Hence their was no fear of any possible uprising by the natives over the activities of the missionaries.
iv. The financial implications of active participation by government must have been a contributing factors influencing the colonial government attitude at that time.
v. Even if the colonial government at the time has enough financial resources to fund education in the country, it had not sufficient manpower to manage the schools as well as run the required local government institutions and their bureaucracies.
Problems Faced By Early Schools
The early schools established by the Christian missionaries faced a number of problems W. Ekuafeh etal (2015) such as:-
1) Organization:- There was no uniformity in the organization of schools. Each mission organized its school according to its denominational doctrines. There was no formal rule or law or policy to control the activities of the missionaries on education and in the schools. The students used to come to school at will, teachers had no standard qualification and there were no rules guiding their performances. The professional ethics and code of conduct were those made by each mission.
2) Irrelevant Curriculum:- The curriculum was concentrated on religion. This threatened the existence of the schools because the people for whom the schools were meant needed literate and functional education in their own culture. They needed resources that would enable them tap their natural resources, enable their children to cultivate the land and to involve them in the type of crafts and trades in the society.
3) Poor Financial Base:- The early schools had to rely on the money collected on Sunday, donations and other charities especially from the parent bodies of the mission back home. School fees were charged according to the readiness or otherwise of the people to allow their children to attained school. There was no financial assistance from the colonial government.
4) Inadequate Personnel:- The early schools lacked adequate trained teachers. Often, the missionary assisted by his wife had to combine pastoral duties with teaching.
5) Inadequate Physical Facilities:- The church building was used as school while sometimes the missionary’s residence was used for that purpose. There were lack of facilities that could aid teaching and learning in the schools. The major textbooks were the Bible and the Hymn Book.
6) Inter-denomination Disunity:- There were intense inter-denominational rivalries among the missions and this led to over concentration of schools in certain towns and villages and near neglect of others. Some of these schools were of the mushroom type.
7) Resistance from the local people:- The early schools were faced with a lot of problems from the local people. Many parents believed that their children in missionary boarden schools or houses were isolated from them or snatched away to learn the foreign ideas and foreign ways of living, that brought disrespect to the traditional values, customs etc of the society.
8) Christian Missionaries Activities in Northern Nigeria:- Missionary educational activities were also carried into Northern part of Nigeria, but at a later date, especially among the non-muslims (i.e. Pegans) of the middle belt zone (present-day Bauchi, Benue and Plateau States). whereas the first mission primary school had been opened in Badagry (Southern Nigeria) in 1843. The first mission school in Northern Nigeria was only opened in Lokoja in 1865.
9) The Religion of the people:- Islam pre-dated Christianity in Nigeria and had been accepted as the dominant religion of the people in many parts of the North before the missionaries finally brought Christianity and western education. Islamic culture was accepted as the culture of the people in the North where Islam had influence. Since education is the means through which culture is acquired, Islamic education was accepted as the process of acquiring and preserving Islamic culture.
10) The Attitude of the Northern Traditional Authority:- Right from the beginning, the muslim rulers in the North have vowed strongly not to allow or welcome either the Christian missionaries or the British colonial administration because of their aims. Northerm Emirs were political, spiritual leaders of their people and would not tolerate any local or foreign interfence.
11) The Non-interference agreement signed by the Northern rulers and the colonial administration.
Christian Missionary Education In The North
Christian missionary education in the north did not succeed as much as it did in the south for several reasons:
a) Geographical Factor:- Accessibility to the south by the sea made it easier for the missionaries to concentrate in the south initially.
b) Social/Religious Factor:- There was already in existence an organized Islamic system of education long before the coming of the Europeans and Christian missionaries. Another hindrance was the Fulani Jihad that was heading towards the south at the same time the missionaries were attempting to come up north with the gospel.
c) Political:- The colonial government had established its headquarter at Lokoja and were consolidating their conquests so they did not allow the missionaries to the north.
Educational Imbalance Between The North And The South
Several factors account for the educational imbalance between the North and the South as evident in the educational attainment of the two regions. Sociological and political factors are keen to this imbalance compule with the government inability to put in place educational development programmes that are in favour of some of the factors responsible for the educational imbalance between the North and South. The factors include: Peretomed, (2001)
i. The ability and willingness of the missionaries to move from one local area to another establishing schools and churches plus the well-established system of worship by Christians as opposed to different systems of worship by communities or various families attracted them to the education the missionaries offered.
ii. The benefits of education which entailed learning the white man’s culture especially English language which serves as the language of commerce and social elevation encouraged many to pursue education offered along with the Christian faith by the missionaries.
iii. Trade links between Badagry and Freetown, the home of the freed slaves played a key role in encouraging them to return home to reunite with their relatives. As they returned, they came back with the new religion (Christianity) and western culture introduced through education.
iv. The south is placed at an advantage because of its strategic position of being close to the sea. Explorers, traders, missionaries and later colonialist came through the sea and all had earlier contacts with the people in the south long before they were able to reach the interior.
v. The missionaries played the role of peace makers in some areas of Yoruba land who had been at war which lasted for many years and this made education rather attractive to the people.
Success and Failures Of Missionary Education
Some of the success of the missionary education are that:-
It is a recorded fact that the missionaries were able to convert the south and were equally able to establish many primary and secondary schools, and teacher training colleges and later vocational institutions all over the country. Martha etal (2008).
Similarly, their educational endeavours produced manpower; clerks, teachers, interpreters and preachers who helped in sustaining the colonial government machinery. The introduction undoubtedly brought about a radical change in Nigeria for the effects of education as being experienced even today cannot be denied. “For example, English language is an established lingua franca through which many nations and ethnic groups use as common or official means of communication.
However, despite the recorded successes, western system of education did very little to meaningful effect changes in the lives of people. Much more emphasis is placed on academic rather than technical education in schools. Little impact was made in the North especially in the Muslim dominated areas because as earlier mentioned, an established system was already in place.
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN NIGERIA BEFORE INDEPENDENCE:
The Rule Of Colonial Government
The colonial government established itself in the colony of Lagos in 1851. It did not then become interested in the provision of school education for the people. As the last Unit inform us, the provision of western- education was exclusively in the hands of Christian missionaries. Fafunwa (1995).
From the early 1870s, the colonial government began to appreciate the work already being undertaken by three missionary bodies. These were the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S), the Wesleyan Methodist Mission and the Roman Catholic Mission. In 1872, the colonial government proposed to spend as much as one thousand pounds (1,000) as granted to these missions. In the end, it could only afford thirty pounds (30.0) which was distributed among the missionary bodies as grants. Between 1874 and 1876 the colonial government had increased its annual grant to each of the missionary bodies to one hundred pounds (100). In 1887, the annual grant to each of the three christian missions was two hundred pounds (200). By this gesture, the colonial government gradually became involved in the provision of western-type education in Nigeria.
Education Ordinances
a. The 1908 education ordinance divided southern Nigeria into three provinces: Eastern, Western and Central provinces which checked the haphazard development of education in Nigeria. .
b. The 1926 education ordinance which checked the haphazard development of education in Nigeria.
Education Institutions
a. In 1901 a Government Primary School was established in Benin.
b. 1909 the first Government Secondary School in Nigeria, the Kings College, Lagos was established.
c. In 1927 the first girls school known as Queen’s College, Lagos, was established.
d. In 1929 Two teacher training colleges at Umuahia and Ibadan were established. But in 1931 they became secondary schools for boys.
e. In 1925, the British parliament introduced the Memorandum on Native Education in Tropical Africa.
f. In 1929, Mr. E.R.J. Hussey became the first Director of Education for both the Southern and Northern groups of provinces in Nigeria.
Why Colonial Government Became Interested In Education
1. Using education to maintain the status quo. The colonial government wanted to use education as means of producing and grooming educated elites who will think and behave like Europeans and who will be ready to defend the interest of Britain in Nigeria.
2. Cumulative need for manpower: this could be seen from two perspectives:
a. The amalgamation of Northern and Southern protectorates made the territorial entity too large for the Europeans to administer and the cost of shipping more Europeans from Britain was too much. As such, the government decided to employ Nigerians to fill the gap. This in turn made the government to become interested in the kind/quality of education the prospective manpower should receive.
b. Established of railway lines and the expansion of the Royal Niger Company and other trade relations necessitated the need to employ communication officials, clerks, book keepers, etc.
c. Changing status of religion (church) in the affairs of education: event in England at that time education was becoming secularized. The government was taking over the affairs of education from the clergy. Therefore, this trend led the colonial government to start showing interest in the issue of education in Nigeria.
Effects Of Colonial Government’s Intervention In Education
The interest shown by the colonial government in the education of Nigerians helped in influencing the course of education under the Christian missionaries. This influence could be summarized as follows:- Fafunwa (1995)
1. Distribution of schools: It ensured an even distribution of schools because the government then determined where the missionaries could build schools.
2. Proper organization of schools: the government made proper organization of schools to be one of the criteria that will qualify a mission school to receive grants from the government.
3. Improved standard: the introduction of things like supervisory unit, criteria for the award of grants, issuance of certificate to graduates, etc by the government made the missionaries to improve the quality of students they produced.
4. It reduced inter-denominational rivalry: it checked the mission’s unhealthy competition in the number of places each denomination captured thus became possible by regulating where and how schools will be established.
5. Awakening interest in teacher and technical education: As the missionary education was basically religious, the type of schools that were built were mainly of the government established Teachers and Technical Colleges.
In early 1870s the colonial administration began to show special kind of interest in education by giving a token amount as grant in aid to some selected missionary societies that were involved in the provision of education in and around Lagos. The colonial government enacted the first education ordinance in 1882. The ordinance was meant to serve all of the British West African territories (the colony of Lagos was then being jointly administered with the colony of Gold Coast). The ordinance made provision for the establishment of a General Board of Education. The board was centralized to the extent that it failed to achieved its objectives which were so board in scope.
Regionalisation Of Education
The 1950’s represent an important land mark in the history of education in Nigeria. A constitution which came into effect in 1946 divided the country into three regions Northern region, Eastern region, and Western region. Each was to have a regional assembly. This development marked the beginning of tribal politics in Nigeria because the regions were demarcated along tribal boundaries. For example, Western region was predominated by Yoruba’s, the Eastern region by Igbos and the Northern region by Hausa-Fulani. In 1951 another constitution, the McPherson constitution, was introduced. The new constitution provided for democratic election into the regional houses of assembly and empowered each region to raise an appropriate fund. The regions were also empowered to pass laws on education, health, agriculture, and local government.
U.P.E Programm(s) Of The 1950
With the rationalization of education and the rise of the three major political parties to power (i.e.) Northern People Congress (NPC) in the North, Action Group (AG) in the West, and the National council of Nigeria and the Cameroon’s (NCNC) in the East, an intensive political rivalry emerged and each party tried to provide social amenities for its own area of jurisdiction. At inception in 1952, the AG led government in the West announced a proposal to introduce free and compulsory universal Primary education for the region in 1955. The proposal included a massive teacher-training programme, the expansion of teacher-training facilities and secondary schools, the introduction of secondary technical education, and secondary modern schools. On the 17th January, 1955, the scheme was introduced but without the word “compulsory”. Anticipating the large number of pupils that will be enrolled in the scheme, the regional government constructed hundreds of schools and trained large number of teachers. However, the governments projected figure of enrollment was below the number registered. This led to some problems culminating in the falling standard of education in the region.
Six years after introduction of UPE in the Western region, a commission called Banjo Commission, was mandated to assess and view the scheme. The commission noted among other things that the falling standard in primary school work were due largely to: Fafunwa (1995)
a) The presence of many untrained teachers;
b) Lack of continuity in staffing;
c) Emphasis on teacher’s private studies at the expenses of the children;
d) Too large classes;
e) Presence of under-age children.
f) Unsatisfactory syllabus.
g) Cessation or restricted of corporal punishment.
h) Lack of cooperation by parents and guardian; and
i) Inadequate supervision of schools either by the inspectorate or the voluntary agency supervisors.
The NCNC also copied from the AG and attempted to introduce a similar UPE programme, in the Eastern region. Schools were hurriedly constructed and in some places temporary shelters were provided while in other places unsuitable buildings were rented to accommodate the bulging school population. Most of these new schools were staffed by untrained teachers. The scheme was launched in February 1957, but due to inadequate preparation, poor management and the uncooperative attitude of some missionary societies (especially the Catholics who see the provision of education to the natives as their prerogative) the programme collapsed right from the beginning.
Northern region on the other hand did not join the race for a free Universal Primary Education. The reason was probably due to the huge financial implication of the programme and the massive preparation required considering the size of population in the region.
The 1882 Education Ordinance
This Ordinance provided for the following:-
1. The General Board of Education consisting of:
(a) The Governor as Chairman or President
(b) Members of the Executive Council
(c) Four other members nominated by the Govt.
2. The General Board empowered to appoint local Boards of Education under its Control. The Local Boards were
(i) To advice the General Board in matters related to the establishment of government schools and
(ii) To grant certificates to teachers and ensure that the conditions for grant-aiding schools were fully met.
3. An Inspectors of Schools was appointed for all British West-African territories spending most of his time in Ghana with Lagos Colony contributing one third of his salary.
4. Two types of primary school were to be established
(i) Government established schools to be maintain solely by the Government and
(ii) Assisted schools established by the missions or private persons to be grant-aided from the public funds. There would be established system of grant aiding school-first good organization and discipline in schools, the pupils achievement, physical facilities and teachers salaries.
5. In government schools religion was not to be taught. Pupils were not to be forced to attend religious functions against their English Language and Arithmetic. Needle work for girls.
The major commission before in the independence in 1960 was the Ashy Commission of 1959 which submitted its report in October 1960 basing its recommendations on three premises: (a) its conception of Nigeria in 1960, (b) Herbisons estimate of Nigeria’s high level manpower needs by 1970 and (c) the commissions estimate of limited capacity in regard to Nigeria educational system. The commission’s three main objectives were firstly to upgrade Nigerians who were already in employment but who needed further education. Secondly to design a system of post secondary education which would produce by 1970 the flow of high-level manpower which Nigeria loosely needed, and thirdly do design education so that it could expand to meet the 1980 target without re-planning. It ten proceeded to make a number of recommendation on primary, secondary and Sixty-Form Education, teacher training, technical education, commercial, agricultural, and veterinary education and University Education. There are with other propositions.
The National Policy on Education (Revised 1981) states that education in Nigeria is no more a private business, but a big government investment that had witnessed a progressive evolution of government complete and dynamic intervention and active participation. The Federal Government of Nigeria, it states has accepted education as the best instrument for carrying out National Development. Naturally therefore the government should declare its philosophy and objectives that underlie its present huge investment in education and spell out in unambiguous terms the policies that guide governments educational efforts.
The 1887 Education Ordinance
The persistent criticism by the nationalist and the desire of the British colonial government to extent her influence into the Hinterland led to the separation of Lagos from the Gold Coast Colony in 1886. It became imperative for Lagos to have its own education ordinance which, in effect became the first purely Nigeria Education Ordinance. The major provisions of the 1887 Ordinance were:
1. The constitution of a Board of Education, comprising the Governor, members of the Legislative Council, which was then a small body, the inspector of schools, and four nominees of the governor.
2. The appointment by her Majesty of an Inspector of Schools for the colony.
3. Grants-in-aids to schools and teacher training institutions.
4. Power of Board to make, alter and revoke rules for regulating the procedure of grants-in-aid to infant schools, primary schools and secondary schools.
5. Rates and conditions of grants-in-aid to infant schools, primary schools and secondary schools.
6. Safeguards as to religious and racial freedom.
7. Certificates of teachers.
8. Admission into an assisted school of pauper and alien children assigned to it by the Governor.
9. Power of Governor to open and maintain government schools.
10. The ordinance proved more workable, and government aid to education after 1889 increased. It equally provided for further decentralization which made improvement in education possible. Freedom of religion was also entrenched in the ordinance which was a reflection of the practice in England. Furthermore, the special grant to industrial schools were evidence of the attempt that was made to encourage manual and technical skills. It was also an answer to the criticism that the form of education given at the time was bookish.
Political Developments And Education
The establishment of the two Protectorates Northern and Southern had a considerable impact on the development of education in Nigeria. Firstly, it provided some measure of protection for Christian evangelism in Nigeria in general and in northern Nigeria in particular. Secondly, it made the government become more involved than ever in the education of her colony. In 1914 the colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria was politically amalgamated with the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. With the birth of Nigeria in 1914, Sir Frederick Lugard became the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of Nigeria. Lugard was passionately interested in education and barely four months in office, he prepared a draft education ordinance and draft regulations for grants-in-aids to voluntary schools. Education ordinance and code proposed by Lugard in 1914 were finally adopted in 1916. The 1916 code was meant to curb the increasing number of unassisted schools and to simplify the procedure for approving schools.
The Phelps Stokes Commission On Education In Nigeria
A major report on education in Africa influenced subsequent education efforts in Nigeria was the Phelps Stokes Commission Report. The Phelps-Stokes Fund, established in 1941 by an American Philanthropist Miss Caroline Phelps-Stokes with the objective of educating the black people, both in Africa and the United State sponsored several studies on race relations and problems of native education in Africa. The commission appointed early in 1920; had the following objectives:
(a) To inquire as to the educational work being done at present in each of the area to be studied.
(b) To investigate the education needs of the people in the light of the religious, social, hygienic, and economic conditions.
(c) To ascertain to what extent these needs are being met.
(d) To make available in full, the results of this study.
The 1926 Education Ordinance
The responsibility of translating the policy into action in Nigeria was placed in the hand of Sir Hugh Clifford, the then Governor. He identified two defects in the Nigerian educational system namely, the poor quality of education and rapid growth in the number of schools. Clifford therefore proposed the remedies of more financial provision for education and a control educational development. The outcome of the efforts of Sir, Hugh Clifford, Mr. Selwyn Grier, and Mr. E. R. Swanston, culminated in the emergence of the 1926 ordinance for the colony and southern provinces. The 1926 Education Ordinance stipulated:
1. The registration of all categories of teachers as a condition for teaching in the region. This provision marked the beginning of Teachers unionism and eventually led to the formation of the Nigerian Union of Teacher.
2. That the governor should control the opening of new schools or close down those that were poorly administered.
3. A minimum rate of salaries payable to teachers in assisted schools.
4. That voluntary agencies could appoint supervisors subject to the approval of the Director of Education.
Eric Hussey and Amalgamation of the Education Departments of the Northern and Southern Provinces, 1929.
The appointment on 17th July, 1929, of Mr. E.R.J. Hussey as the First Director of Education of Nigeria marked a significant stage in the development of Education Departments of both Northern and Southern provinces. In pursuance of the policy of steady development Hussey proposed three levels of education for Nigerian: the six-year primary education course which prior to this period, had been eight-year course with the language of immediate community as the medium of instruction, the secondary stage also to be six year duration, the third stage, called vocational high education to provide well qualified assistants, medical, engineering, and other vocation courses that would eventually rise to the standard of a British University. The government accepted these recommendations and it was the idea of the third stage that led to the establishment of Yaba Higher College.
Nigerian Union Of Teachers (NUT)
The Nigerian Union of Teachers which was founded on 8th July, 1931 was a child of crises. Amongst the factors that culminated in its establishment was the 1930 Education Code by Hussey the then Director of Education.
1) The code demoted teachers with long years of experience and made it difficult for them to qualify for higher pay under the new code.
2) Another problem was the non-recognition of teachers as civil servants which became a constant source of frustration to the Nigerian teachers.
3) Added to this was the cut in grants-in-aid that followed in 1931 resulting in pay cuts for teachers. This definitely had a catalytic effect in bringing teachers together for appropriate action.
Objectives Of The N.U.T.
The N.U.T. was formed purposely to cater for the interest of members and to improve their condition of service. Among other objectives are:
a) Create a better understanding among the teachers in Nigeria.
b) Enable all teachers from all parts of Nigeria to meet on regular basis to discuss issues and problems related to the school system and teachers in general.
c) To promote the association of teachers in all states of Nigeria.
d) To provide means of co-operation of teachers and the expression of their collective opinion upon matters affecting the interest of education and the teaching profession.
e) To control entry into the teaching profession, maintain a high standard of qualification and raise the status of the teaching profession.
f) To co-operate with the governments, the ministries of education, the Boards of Education and all recognized educational agencies in Nigeria for the improvement of education and the teaching profession and to endeavour to remove difficulties, abuses and obsolete regulations and detrimental to progress.
g) To provide leadership and stimulate interest in matters which foster national unity and understanding.
Since the establishment of the N.U.T. it appears it has only been effective in the area of negotiating better condition of service for the Nigerian teachers. For instance, in 1947 it successfully organized a national strike that instrumental in securing substantial pay-rises for teachers.
Also, in 1964 another nationwide strike was called that again led to the improved condition of service. Just of recent the N.U.T. again called another nation-wide strike in 1994 and 1995 to raise teacher’s salary; this strike was however, not successful as the Federal Government was able to frustrate all their efforts.
The N.U.T. has also failed in securing a long drawn special scale for teachers otherwise called Teachers Salary Structure whereas the Medical doctors have succeeded in getting the Medical Salary Structure (MSS), there is also Englogated University Salary Structure for the Universities and allied tertiary and research institutes.
The Emergence of Higher Education in Nigeria the Yaba Higher College, 1932.
The emergence of Higher College, Yaba, as Nigeria’s first institution of higher learning marked a new step towards achieving a complete educational system. Prior to this time, the colonial Government’s attempt at providing post-secondary education were only in the form of vocational and sub-professional courses which were given at the agricultural research center Moore Plantation, Ibadan at Samaru Near Zaria, in Veterinary Science at Vom in Jos Plateau, and in engineering in Lagos by the Nigeria Railway Company and the Government Technical Departments. These attempts did not satisfy the growing demand for higher education in Nigeria.
On 19th January, 1934, the Yaba Higher College was officially opened by the Governor, Sir Donald Cameron. The curriculum of the College was aimed at producing intermediary manpower needs of the country in engineering, medicine, teacher training for secondary schools, agriculture, survey, forestry and later commercial services in the civil service.
The Yaba Higher College right from conception was greeted by sharp criticisms from the public. Firstly, the narrow aim of the institution was unacceptable to the highly vocal Nigerian nationalist who had requested for a university and not a higher college.
Secondly, the college admission policy was considered too stringent. The number of students to be admitted annually depended on the number of prospective vacancies available in government departments to absorb them upon competition of their various courses.
Yaba Higher College suffered serious setback during the second World War (1939-45). Its campus and medical school were acquired by the army for war purpose and the students were dispersed. The College existed for only fifteen years before it was finally absorbed by University College, Ibadan.
However, it is on record that during its short span, the Yaba Higher College produced distinguished men who later became the first batch of Nigeria Medical Doctors Ministers, permanently Secretaries and Professionals in other fields.
The Asquith And The Elliot Commission Of Higher Education, 1943
The failure of the Yaba Higher College experiment and effect of the war culminated in the setting up the Asquith and Elliot Commissions on Higher Education. The Asquith Commission was appointed in 1943 “to consider the principles which should guide the promotion of higher education, learning and research and the development of universities in the colonies, and to explore means whereby universities and other appropriate bodies in the United Kingdom may be able to co-operate with institutions of higher education in the colonies in order to guide effect to these principles.
(i) Universities should be established in areas not served by an existing University, first beginning as a University College.
(ii) That teachers should be trained for secondary schools.
(iii) That Universities should residential and open to men and women of all classes.
(iv) Research should be an essential part of a University life.
(v) That an Inter-University Council for education in the colonies should be established.
Before this time, the Elliot Commission had been set up to report on the organization and facilities of the existing centers of Higher Education in West Africa and to make the recommendations regarding future University developments.
Two separate reports came out of the Elliot Commission: Majority and Minority reports. The majority report recommended the establishment of three University Colleges in the then British West Africa to be situated at Ibadan, Achimota and Fourah Bay College which could serve both Leone and Gambia. The minority report on the other hand recommended only one University College for the Western African University College, but that each of the remaining territories to have colleges capable of producing intermediate manpower needs of the territories as the Nigeria Colleges of Arts, Science and Technology.
The Gold Coast (Ghana) and Sierra Leone protested the Minority report. Consequent upon this, the newly formed inter-University Collegation, led by Sir, W.H. Fyfe visited West Africa and after on-the-sot study recommended that two Univerity Colleges should be established: one in Nigeria and the other in the Gold Coast (Ghana) and the remaining territories to have each a regional college. The report of both the Asquith and Elliot contributed significantly toward the development of education in Nigeria. The two commissions were directly responsible for the establishment of Nigeria’s first University, the University College, Ibadan.
The Birth Of A University College, 1948
In May 1947, Dr. Kenneth Mellanby was appointed the first Principal of the University College, Ibadan. With the transfer of the students of the Old Yaba Higher College, the University College, Ibadan started its first term in January, 1948 with 104 students and 13 instructors.
The fist five years of the University College was a difficult period. The public and press were critical of the institution and even refused to co-operate with it. The first criticism leveled against it was that, Nigeria wanted a University but was given a University College. The prejudice against the Higher College had not been forgotten and fears were entertained that the new College might become another “Yaba Higher College” whose goal of becoming a University was never attained.
Secondly, the College administration had not regarded it as necessary to make it the people’s own University College, although it was financed from their taxes. Other sharp-criticism against the College emanated from its discriminatory administrative policy on appointments, conditions of service and the curriculum. The majority of the recruited staff were from the British Isles, inspite of the fact that, there were qualified Africans. Between 1948 and 1949, the College had forty-four expatriate staff and only six Africans.
Inspite of the criticisms that were leveled against Ibadan in its early years, the birth of the University College is a big step in the development of Nigeria’s educational system.
Regionalization And Education In Nigeria
Constitutional development between 1947-1960 had considerable impact on subsequent educational development in Nigeria. The Richard constitution of 1946 which put Nigeria firmly on the path to political independence, divided the country into three regional administrative units. It decentralized educational administration by classifying education as a regional service. The constitution however had some political inadequacies which led it its been roundly criticized by the nationalists.
The criticism led to the Ibadan conference of the 19th January, 1950 to debate on whether Nigeria would adopt a full centralized system of government or a Federal system. By a majority vote, the conference adopted a majority opinion in favour of a Federal system and the retention of the existing regions of a federal system and the retention of the existing regions as immediate units of the Nigerian Federation. It was this conference that gave birth to the 1951 Macpherson’s constitution. The 1951 constitution gave the various regions exclusive legislative competence to pass law on education, agriculture and health. The powers vested in the regional governments were later strengthened by the Nigeria constitution order in council of 1954.
The various Regional Governments consisting of the National Convention of Nigeria Citizens (N.C.N.C) controlling the East; the Action Group (A.G) controlling the West and the Northern People’s Congress (N.P.C) controlling the North respectively all reacted to this constitutional provision of 1954 and built up Regional laws which became the basis of the regional activities and policies in education.
The Western Regional Government with its emphasis on free Education Programme under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo set the pace of others to follow in this race of intensive political rivalry by enacting the Western Region Education launched in January, 1955 with some 811,000 children turning up.
The Eastern and Northern Region Government followed the example of the Western Regional Government. The eastern Regional Government enacted the eastern Region, Education Law of 1956 (No 28 of 1956) which came into force on 1st October, 1956. The Central Government was not left out of the race. It enacted the Education (Lagos) Ordinance 1957 (No. 26 of 1957) to amend the law relating to education in the Federal Territory of Lagos, to provide for Universal Free Primary Education and the establishment of an education authority in such Federal Territory and for matters relating thereto.
However, few years after the Free Education Programme was launched in the Western Region the standard of Primary Education began to fall. It was this falling standard that led to the setting up of the Banjo commission in 1960. The Eastern Regional Government did not have enough time to plan adequately before embarking on Free Universal Primary Education Programme.
Consequently, there were problems of inadequate building, equipment, large number of untrained teachers etc. it was these problems that led the government to set up the Dike Commission in 1948. The Commission advocated a more realistic approach which will focus attention on quality rather than quantity.
In Lagos, free primary school was launched in January 1957, which led to a massive increase in the number of pupils.
While all these revolutionary educational activities were going on in the western and eastern regions the Northern Region remained unconcerned, probably due to the large number of children of school age which she would have to cope with the financial implications of launching a free education programme.
The Asby Commission Of 1959/1960
By 1959, a target date had been fixed for Nigeria’s independence on October 1, 1960. In anticipation of the manpower needs of independent Nigeria, therefore, the Federal Government appointed a Commission to conduct an investigation into Nigeria’s needs in the field of post-secondary school certificate and Higher education comprising members included Professor K.O. Dike, Dr. Onabamiro and Sir Kashim Ibrahim.
The commission submitted its report in September 1960, less than one month before independence, and gave it the title “investment in Education” which underlines the principle of its recommendations.
The commission’s recommendations aimed at upgrading Nigerians who are already in employment but who needed further education.
To design a post-secondary education which would produce before 1970 the flow of high-level manpower which Nigeria would need and lastly to design an education which can be enlarged, without been re-planned to meet Nigeria’s needs up to 1980.
The lofty recommendations of the commission include the following:
1. That there should be increase in the speedy flow of intake into the secondary schools from the primary schools.
2. That adequate effort should be made to improve standards in primary school subject especially English language.
3. That technical and commercial subjects be included in the curriculum of selected secondary schools.
4. That some girls secondary schools should provide one year post-school certificate commercial courses to prepare girls for secretarial employment.
5. That the status of teachers be improved o stop the drift into more respectable forms of employment.
6. That technical institutes should provide full times post secondary general commercial courses and also sandwich and part-time day and even courses should be designed to meet specific needs of the employees.
7. That new universities should be established at Zaria and Lagos, while University of Nsukka and University of Ife should be given Federal Government support to ensure that full development.
8. That all Universities in Nigeria should be national in outlook and general policy.
9. All Universities should offer courses in B.A. Education, Medicine, Law, Commerce, and Agriculture in addition to traditional courses.
10. That admission to each University should be by merit alone.
(i) Each University should have an Institute of African Studies to conduct research in this area.
(ii) That a National Universities Commission be set up to exercise control over the affairs of the Universities in the areas of finance, staff and courses.
The Ashby Commission’s recommendations had a lasting impact on Nigeria’s educational system. As cited by Taiwo (1980), P. 126). The Commission broadened its terms of reference to include the needs in primary, secondary and technical education and teacher training and thereby emphasized the unit of an educational system.
Furthermore, the report makes continuing contribution as an illustration of the nature of an educational system and, the use of innovation, adaptation and relevance in education.
The National Policy On Education
The search for a National Policy on Education began with the National Conference on Curriculum Development which was held in Lagos between 8th to 12 September, 1969, under the sponsorship of the Nigeria Educational Research Council (N.E.R.C). The Conference was attended by a cross-section of Nigerian educators while some international bodies financially assisted the conference.
The curriculum conference among other things, evolved a national philosophy of education for Nigerians. In addition, it reviewed the educational objectives for the primary, secondary and tertiary level. Furthermore, it stipulated the roles of Science and Technology in national development. The Conference also came out with the bold recommendations of 6-3-3-4 education structure; which implies a six-year primary school course; followed by six years of secondary school, divided into three-year junior secondary and three-year senior secondary course and a four-year university education; in 1973, another conference was held at which a National Policy document was drafted under the chairmanship of Chief Simeon Adebo, a final white paper on the National Policy on Education was published in 1977. A revised edition of the policy came out in 1981.
The philosophy of the Policy are derived from the five national objectives as contained in the second National Development Plan, as itemized in section one of the document which aims at the building of:
1. A free and democratic society
2. A just and egalitarian society
3. A united, strong and self-reliant nation
4. A great and dynamic economy
5. A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens.
National Policy on Education (1981, P.7). To be able to attain these national objectives, the Nigeria education would seek to inculcate the following values:
1. Respect for the growth and dignity of the individuals.
2. Faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions.
3. Moral and spiritual values in inter-personal and human relations;
4. Shared responsibilities for the common good of society;
5. Respect for the dignity of labour; and
6. Promotion of the emotional, physical on Education emphasized pre-primary education, the ideal age of which is between 3 to 5 years, and the purpose of pre-primary education should be transition from the home of the schools preparing the child for primary level of education.
On primary education, the document recognizes the primary level of education given in an institution for children normally aged 6-11+. The objectives of primary education as stipulated in the document are to inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy and the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking and to develop character and moral training and the development of sound attitudes to provide basic tools for further educational advancement.
The most significant contribution contained in the National Policy to the development and modernization of Nigerian educational system is in the area of secondary education. The broad aims of secondary education according to the policy should be to prepare students for useful living within the society and preparation for higher education. Consequently, secondary education is to be of six year duration divided into two tier system – three years for the junior secondary and three years for senior secondary. The junior secondary school curriculum include core subjects such as English Language, Mathematics, two Nigerian Language, Science, Social Studies, Art and Music, Practical Agriculture, Religious and Moral Institution Physical Education and two Pre-Vocational subjects.
While Pre-Vocational subjects will include Woodwork, Mental Work, Electronics, Mechanics, Local Crafts, Home-Economics and Business Studies.
The Non-Vocational Electives will include Arabic Studies and French. At the end of three year junior secondary the academically inclined student will proceed to the senior secondary school while their counterparts who are technically inclined will proceed to an apprenticeship system for Vocational training.
The senior secondary school will be comprehensive in nature and will be for those who have shown appreciable intellectual ability. Its certification will be based on a national examination conducted by the West African Examination Council; and will be the basis of selection for University education, thus replacing the sixth form.
Higher education embraces Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education and Federal Advanced Teacher Training Colleges. According to the National Policy of Education, Higher V should aim at the acquisition development and inculcation of the proper value-orientation for the survival of the individual and society.
Technical Education according to the policy is define as “that aspect of education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basis scientific knowledge”. The purpose of technical education is to provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce, and to provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development.
Adult and Non-Formal Education will among others provide functional literacy education for adult who have never had the advantage of any formal education.
Special education among others will provide adequate education for all handicapped children and adults in order that they may fully play their roles in the development of the nation.
The policy document recognizes the importance of teachers in the successful implementation of the new national policy; Teacher education, will therefore, ensure training of academically and professionally qualified cadres of teachers for all levels of education in Nigeria.
Finally, the National Policy on Education also emphasized Education Services, Administration, Planning and Financing of Education.
The Highlights Of Colonial Education Administrations’ Achievements In Education
(a) The following schools were established as government schools:
1899 Government Primary School, Lagos
1901 Government Primary School, Benin City
1909 Kings College, Lagos
1921 Katsina Teacher Training College
1927 Queens College, Lagos
1929 Government Teacher Training Colleges Umuahia and Ibadan
1931 Umuahia and Ibadan reverted to Government Secondary
Schools
1932 Yaba Higher College
1948 University College Ibadan
(b) 1887 The first grant-in-aid to the three major missionaries operating
in Lagos
(c) Division of Southern Nigeria into three provinces – Eastern, Central and Western provinces.
(d) 1925 Memorandum on Native Education in Tropical Africa.
(e) 1930 Appointment of Mr. E.R.J. Hussey as Director for Nigeria.
Some cultural unions, ethnic unions provided scholarships and bursaries for this training of Nigerians in western-type education. Philanthropists like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Ozumba Mbadiwe and Nwafor Orizu floated certain schemes which aimed at providing funds to enable Nigerians to go further in education. Some schools were established through communal efforts. Such schools include Kalabari National College Buguma and Ibibio State College.
Some Nigerian businessmen contributed in the provision of western-type education. Dr. Alvan Ikoku established Aggrey Memorial College in 1932. Professor Eyo Ita established the forerunner of the West African People’s Institute, Calabar, in 1938. Mention can also be made of the following: New Bethel College. Onitsha, by M.C. Agwu, African College Onitsha by Chukwurah, Abbot Group of Secondary schools by Okeke; etc.
The Role of Private Enterprise In The Development Of Education Before Independence
Dr. Yusuf Mudi
We cannot over-look the role of private enterprise in the provision of western-type education in Nigeria. Professor Fafunwa is of the opinion that the contributions of parents and relatives were almost as important as those of the Christian missionaries. By the early 1930s most people in Eastern Nigeria had already begun to realize the importance of western-type education.
The rise of African Nationalism was a factor which influenced many proprietors. It made them realize that education was a means of emancipating the people from ignorance. It was also felt that the existing mission schools perpetuated colonial mentality. There was then the need to liberate the people’s mind so as to enable them join in the struggle for African Nationalism.
In 1913 when the Baptist Mission under Rev. Griffith fell out with Rev. Euba, a Nigerian teaching in the school, Reverend Euba forestalled the move of sacking him by resigning. He founded the Eko Boys High School in Lagos, thus becoming the first Nigerian to establish a private school. In Eastern Nigerian, the first of these private schools was the Aggrey Memorial College, established at Arochukwu by by Alvan Ikoku in April, 1932. This was followed by Enitonna High School founded by Rev. Potts-Johnson in May, 1932, in Port Harcourt. In 1938 National Institute, Calabar, the precursor of the West African People’s Institute, was founded by Professor Eyo Ita. By the fourties many other Nigerian established a number of secondary grammar and commercial schools. Mention can be made of the following: the New Bethel College Onitsha founded by Chukwurah, Abbot Group of Secondary Schools at Ihiala and Warri founded by Okeke, Etukokwu School of Commerce founded by Etukokwu, St. George’s College, Enugu, founded by Chiedozie and Eastern Commercial Academy founded by Aro.
Finally beside the efforts of the private proprietors, we had community schemes which aimed at mobilizing community efforts for the provision of educational facilities. The communities established secondary schools. Cultural organizations and ethnic unions through communal efforts established educational institutions. Such educational institutions include the Kalabari National College Buguma established in 1938 and Ibibio State College established in 1940. One way may now fully appreciate the fact that the provision of western-type education was not only the business of the Christian missionaries. Their effort was really supplemented by the Colonial Government and the private enterprises.
The Development Of Secondary Education
The Post Independence development of secondary education centred around the following problem areas.
1. The expansion in primary education created a high demand for secondary education.
2. The Ashby Commission had called for increased numbers in the secondary school population and revision of it curriculum.
3. Some commissions appointed to review the educational system found out that the content of secondary school education as well as the methods of instruction in such schools were inappropriate.
4. Other problems identified included the over emphasis on book education in the secondary schools. Pupils despised manual work. Science curriculum was poor. All these contributed to the so-called falling standards in education.
Government saw the root cause of all these problems as the poor quality and quantity of secondary school teachers. The graduate teachers were in very short supply. Government tried to have expatriate teachers to meet this demand. But paying for the passages was too much on the lean resources of the regional governments. And, worse still, many of these hirelings stayed only for a term of two years or three and refused to renew their contract.
However, to meet the increasing number of secondary school students Government opened many new secondary schools. Generally the curriculum was English Language, Mathematics, History, Geography, Religious Knowledge, Local Languages, Fine and Applied Arts, General Science, Biology, Chemistry and Physics, French was taking gradually the place of Latin and Greek. The grammar school kept its lead and remained the darling of both parents and students. The higher school i.e. sixth form was not so successful except in a few government well established school with enough graduate teachers and laboratory equipment.
The Development of Technical And Vocational Education
After independence the government of the Northern Region established twelve craft centres and three technical schools all over the region. A technical institute at Kaduna admitted students from all parts of the North. By 1960, the Eastern Region, had thirty-three technical and vocational institutions of various kinds. A College of Technology now the Institute of Management and Technology was establiahed at Enugu. In the Western Region, government established four trade centres and the women’s occuptational centre at Abeokuta. A Technical Institute now the Auchi Polytechnic was established at Auchi. In Lagos we had the Yaba College of Technology and the Yaba Trade School at Surulere. It is important to observe that a number of the bigger industrial firms like the United African Company (UAC), departments and corporations like the Public Works Department (PWD) or the Ministry of Works, Posts and Telegraph (P & T), the Nigerian Railways and the Nigerian Coal Corporation had technical schools in which they trained artisans in their specific industries. Last but not the least are the roadside mechanics who acquire their skills from self-employed artisans while many girls acquire skills in needle work, catering and domestic science from such road side artisans.
The Development Of Teacher Education In Nigeria
After independence, teacher education had two major problems-low output of teachers and poor quality of the teachers produced. To meet the two problems government granted the provision of additional Grade II Training Colleges and extra streams to the existing ones. To make up for the poor quality, government approved the up-grading of most of the Grade III Training Colleges to Grade II. Ten new Grade II Teachers’ Colleges were to be established. Unfortunately the Ashby recommendation for the establishment of Teacher’s Grade I Colleges was not vigorously pursued. However the Western Government established the Ohio Project, a normal science centre admitting teachers with Grade II teachers’ certificate. Lagos had the Government Teachers’ Training College of Surulere. The Eastern Region established a science centre at Umudike near Umuahia for the production of Teachers’ Grade I Certificates.
Soon the Teachers’ Grade I programme gave way to the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) for the preparation of teachers for the lower forms of secondary schools and for the teacher training colleges. They were three year – programme institutions. The Advanced Teachers’ Colleges as they were initially called were established in Lagos in 1962, Ibadan 1962 (but in 1964 it became Adeyemi College of Education Ondo), Zaria in 1962 ( but moved to Kano in 1964) and Owerri in 1963. In 1968 one was established at Abraka in Bendel State but took the name College of Education.
When the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was established, it too the lead in starting a new teachers programme known as the B.A. B.Sc. and the B. Ed in Education. This meant that a student could combine education courses with one or two teaching subjects and offer them throughout the student’s four years to graduate. This replaced the traditional system of taking a degree before coming for a one year diploma in education.
The Role Of Higher Education
By 1960 the University College Ibadan had established itself as a reputable institution of higher learning. It was also making a great contribution to the man-power needs of Nigeria. But the need for a larger out-put of University graduates was increasingly felt and commonly expressed. For example, as far back as 1955 there were serious thoughts and attempts to establish another University. Ibadan was criticized for its residential nature. Partly because of these criticisms, the Federal Minister for Education, on behalf of the Federal and Regional Governments appointed the Ashby Commission. The Commissions recommendations gave support to the establishment of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, University of Ife, Ile Ife and the University of Lagos, Lagos. It was after 1970 that state governments joined the establishment of Universities while the Federal Government started to establish Universities of Technology and others for Agriculture.
The Role Of Private Enterprise In The Development Of Education In Nigeria After Independence
In the area of primary schools, private enterprise did not feature much. This was left solely in the hands of the voluntary agencies and government. Some corporate bodies like the university of Ibadan and other Universities of at Nsukka, Ife, Lagos and Zaria tried to establish primary schools for the convenience of their staff. In the pa secondary school sector, local communities and individuals helped the government by establishing and running some secondary schools, most of these private schools were not granted-aided from public funds and so turned to commercial and vocational subjects which attracted students. This gave rise to numerous private commercial secondary schools which were established after institutions were poorly equipped; but they supplied the secretarial staff which enabled the Nigerian bureaucracy to stand when the colonial staff left in 1960.
However, the massive growth of private secondary schools made planned expansion very difficult. Communities and villages competed against one another in the establishment of secondary schools. The quality of the schools varied from school to school revealed by the result of the West African School Certificate Examinations. These private schools were worst hit in terms of performance because of lack of finance which resulted in poor equipment and personnel. However, there were isolated exceptions such as the International School at Ibadan which was being sponsored by the University of Ibadan. In the case of primary schools, private schools were among the best because they were very few and the parents were prepared to pay high fees for running the schools. The aim of the parents was to ensure that their children secured admission in the few well equipped and staffed Government Colleges in each of the regions.
In addition to contributions of private enterprise in the formal system, there are hundreds of artisans spread throughout the country who were self-employed and who train apprentices in their respective trades/ many girls acquired skills in needle work, sewing, catering and domestic science in that way. Many road-side mechanics acquire their skills, which are reasonably high in a few cases, from self employed artisans.
The 1969 Curriculum Conference
The National Curriculum Conference held in Lagos in September 1969 was a major landmark in the history of Nigerian education. What was unique about this conference was that it was not a conference of experts and professionals. Rather, it represented a conference of a cross section of the Nigerian society: trade unions, farmers, religious organizations, university lecturers and administrators, businessmen and women, youth clubs, and ministry officials.
The curriculum conference was not concerned with preparing a national curriculum, nor was it expected to recommend specific contents and methodology. It was to review the old and identity new national goals for Nigerian education, bearing in mind the needs of youths and adults in the task of nation building and national reconstruction. The conference identified the following areas as crucial to the attainment of the conference objectives.
1. National philosophy of education
2. Goals of primary education
3. Objectives of secondary education
4. Purpose of tertiary education
5. The role of teacher education
6. Functions of science and technical education
7. The place of women’s education
8. Education for living
9. Control of public education.
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